The Hell in Chinese Mythology and Religion: A Comprehensive Overview

The concept of the underworld, known as «Di Fu» (地府) or «Yin Cao Di Fu» (阴曹地府), occupies a significant place in Chinese mythology and religious beliefs. This realm, where the souls of the deceased are judged and reside, has evolved over centuries, shaped by philosophical, religious, and cultural influences. This article explores the historical development, structure, governance, and cultural significance of the Chinese underworld, offering a comprehensive understanding of its role in China’s spiritual and cultural landscape.

Origins and Evolution of the Chinese Underworld Concept

Philosophical Foundations and Early Beliefs

• Yin and Yang Dualism: Central to Chinese cosmology is the concept of Yin (阴) and Yang (阳), representing opposing yet complementary forces that govern the universe. Yin, associated with darkness, cold, and passivity, contrasts with Yang, linked to light, warmth, and activity. This dualism extends into the Chinese understanding of life and death, where the living world embodies Yang, and the underworld represents Yin. The transition from life to death is viewed as a shift from the Yang realm to the Yin domain, reflecting a continuation rather than an end.
• Pre-Zhou Dynasty Beliefs: Even before the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BCE), the Chinese had complex beliefs about the soul and the afterlife. Ancient texts and oracle bones reveal that the early Chinese perceived the human soul as comprising two elements: Hun, associated with the heavens (Yang), and Po, connected to the earth (Yin). Upon death, the Hun ascends to the celestial realm, while the Po descends to the earth, embodying the balance between these two forces. This belief highlights the importance of maintaining harmony between the spiritual and physical worlds.
• Early Terms for the Underworld: The Chinese language includes several ancient terms for the underworld, each depicting different aspects of the afterlife. «Youdu» (幽都), meaning «city of shadows,» evokes a dark, mysterious realm inhabited by spirits. «Huangquan» (黄泉), or «Yellow Springs,» represents an early concept of the subterranean afterlife, where the dead reside. «Fengdu» (酆都) later became synonymous with the entrance to the underworld, and the city of Fengdu in Sichuan province is often described in folklore as the gateway to the realm of the dead.

Influences from Buddhism and the Development of Hell

• Introduction of Buddhist Concepts: Buddhism, which began to influence China around the 1st century CE, introduced new ideas about the afterlife, including the concepts of karma and reincarnation. These beliefs profoundly impacted the Chinese conception of the underworld, particularly through the depiction of hells where souls are punished for their sins. The Buddhist underworld features a system of Eighteen Hells, each corresponding to specific types of suffering and punishment. This detailed structure was integrated into Chinese beliefs, reshaping traditional views of justice and retribution in the afterlife.
• Eighteen Layers of Hell: The Eighteen Layers of Hell are a central feature of the Buddhist-influenced underworld. These layers represent a hierarchy of punishments, increasing in severity with the gravity of the sins committed. Each layer addresses different moral transgressions, providing a comprehensive system for the retribution of souls. This concept reflects the Buddhist emphasis on moral causality and the purification of the soul through suffering, preparing it for eventual rebirth. The detailed depiction of these hells in Chinese literature and folklore underscores their importance in conveying moral lessons and reinforcing societal values.
• Bureaucratic System of the Underworld: Influenced by the hierarchical nature of Chinese imperial governance, the underworld evolved into a complex bureaucratic system. It is organized into multiple courts, each presided over by specific deities and officials responsible for the judgment and punishment of souls. This structure mirrors the administrative framework of the earthly government, emphasizing order, justice, and the importance of adhering to moral principles. The bureaucratic organization of the underworld ensures that each soul is processed systematically and fairly, reflecting the Chinese cultural emphasis on harmony and balance.

Daoist Contributions and Syncretism with Buddhist Beliefs

• Integration of Daoist Deities and Concepts: Daoism, with its focus on immortality, the afterlife, and a rich pantheon of deities, significantly influenced the Chinese underworld. Daoist texts and practices introduced key figures such as Yanluo Wang (阎罗王), the chief judge of the underworld, and the Ten Kings of Hell, who preside over different courts and administer justice. These figures became integral to the Daoist vision of the afterlife, where they oversee the process of judgment and ensure that souls receive appropriate retribution or rewards based on their earthly actions.
• Adaptation and Synthesis: The blending of Daoist and Buddhist beliefs led to a unique synthesis in the Chinese understanding of the underworld. Daoism incorporated many Buddhist ideas, including the structure of hells and the concept of karma, into its own framework. This syncretism created a rich and multifaceted vision of the afterlife, where souls navigate a complex system of judgment and reincarnation. This integrated approach allowed Chinese religion to adapt to changing beliefs and practices, providing a comprehensive and flexible understanding of life, death, and morality.

Structure and Governance of the Underworld

The Three Realms and the Role of the Underworld

• The Three Realms (三界): Chinese cosmology divides the universe into three interconnected realms: Heaven, Earth, and the Underworld. Heaven is the domain of gods and celestial beings, Earth is the realm of the living, and the Underworld is where the souls of the dead reside. Each realm operates under its own rules and governance, but they are interlinked and influence each other. The underworld serves as the critical junction where souls are judged and assigned their fates based on their actions in life. This division underscores the cyclical nature of existence in Chinese belief, where life and death are part of an ongoing process of transformation and balance.
• Bureaucratic and Hierarchical Organization: The Chinese underworld is structured as an elaborate bureaucracy, reflecting the organization of the imperial state. It is divided into numerous courts and regions, each managed by specific deities and officials who oversee the administration of justice. This hierarchical system emphasizes order and the rule of law, extending these principles to the spiritual realm. The underworld’s bureaucracy ensures that every soul undergoes a fair and systematic process of judgment and reincarnation, mirroring the administrative efficiency and ethical concerns of the earthly government.

Major Deities and Figures in the Underworld

• Yanluo Wang (Yama King): Yanluo Wang is the most prominent figure in the Chinese underworld, derived from the Hindu and Buddhist deity Yama. He is the ruler and chief judge of the underworld, presiding over the Ten Courts of Hell. Yanluo Wang’s role is to ensure that each soul receives fair judgment and appropriate punishment or reward based on their earthly deeds. Often depicted as a stern and authoritative figure, Yanluo Wang embodies the principles of justice and moral retribution in the afterlife.

• Fengdu Emperor and Dongyue Dadi: The Fengdu Emperor and the East Peak Emperor, are significant deities associated with the underworld. The Fengdu Emperor is regarded as the ruler of Fengdu, the mythical gateway to the underworld. Dongyue Dadi presides over Mount Tai, one of China’s sacred mountains, considered a crucial site for the transition of souls to the afterlife. Both deities play vital roles in overseeing the journey of souls from the living world to the underworld and ensuring their proper placement in the afterlife. Their presence highlights the importance of sacred geography and divine oversight in the Chinese vision of the afterlife.

• The Ten Kings of Hell (十殿阎罗): The Ten Kings of Hell are a central feature of the Chinese underworld, each ruling over a specific court and responsible for judging and administering punishments to souls based on their sins. The Ten Kings are:

1. • Qin Guang Wang (秦广王): The first king, who examines the records of the deceased and determines their initial fate.
2. • Chu Jiang Wang (楚江王): Presides over the first level of Hell, where lighter punishments are administered for minor sins.
3. • Song Di Wang (宋帝王): Judges those who have committed theft, deceit, or other dishonest acts.
4. • Wu Guan Wang (五官王): Oversees the judgment of those who have been unfilial or disrespectful to their parents.
5. • Yan Luo Wang (阎罗王): The chief judge who presides over the central court and makes the final decisions regarding the souls’ punishments or rewards.
6. • Bian Cheng Wang (卞城王): Administers punishment for liars, fraudsters, and those who have caused harm through deceit.
7. • Tai Shan Wang (泰山王): Responsible for judging those who have committed violent acts or inflicted physical harm on others.
8. • Du Shi Wang (都市王): Judges those guilty of causing significant suffering or harm to others, including acts of cruelty and oppression.
9. • Ping Deng Wang (平等王): Ensures fairness and equality in judgment, overseeing cases where there may be disputes or complexities.
10. • Zhuan Lun Wang (转轮王): Manages the reincarnation process, determining the next life of the soul based on their accumulated karma.
    Each king’s court specializes in a particular type of sin and corresponding punishment, ensuring that justice is meted out according to the severity and nature of the transgressions. This detailed system reflects the Chinese emphasis on order, fairness, and moral responsibility in both life and death.

• Supporting Officials and Functionaries

1. Ox-Head and Horse-Face (牛头马面): Among the most recognizable figures in the underworld, Ox-Head (牛头) and Horse-Face (马面) are enforcers responsible for capturing and escorting souls to the courts for judgment. They embody the power and authority of the underworld, ensuring that souls cannot escape their fate. Their appearance, combining human and animal features, symbolizes their role as mediators between the living world and the realm of the dead.
2. Ghost Messengers: These officials act as the police force of the underworld, maintaining order and ensuring that souls follow the rules and procedures of their judgment and punishment. Often depicted as grim and imposing, ghost messengers play a crucial role in upholding the laws of the underworld and ensuring the smooth operation of its bureaucratic system.
3. Record Keepers and Scribes: Essential to the administration of justice, these officials maintain detailed records of each soul’s deeds during their lifetime. Their meticulous documentation ensures that the judgment process is based on accurate and comprehensive information. This emphasis on record-keeping reflects the Chinese belief in accountability and the importance of a fair and just process in the afterlife.
4. Torturers and Executioners: Responsible for carrying out the punishments in the various layers of Hell, these officials ensure that souls experience the appropriate retribution for their sins. Their role underscores the significance of moral consequences and the belief that justice must be enforced to maintain balance and order in the underworld.

• Origin and Duties of Specific Roles: Each role in the underworld has its origins and specific duties that contribute to the overall functioning of this bureaucratic system. For example, the belief in Ox-Head and Horse-Face stems from ancient Chinese symbolism, where the ox and the horse were seen as powerful and enduring animals capable of guiding and controlling the spirits. Ghost messengers, often derived from traditional depictions of underworld guardians, reflect the need for a force that maintains order and discipline among the souls.

The Eighteen Layers of Hell

A significant aspect of the Chinese underworld is the concept of the Eighteen Layers of Hell (十八层地狱), each layer designed to punish specific sins with corresponding tortures. These hells are part of a system of moral retribution influenced by Buddhist teachings, where souls undergo various forms of suffering based on the gravity of their earthly misdeeds. Here is a detailed description of each layer and the punishments associated with them:

1. Chamber of Tongue Ripping : This hell is for those who spread lies, slander, or engage in malicious gossip. The punishment involves having one’s tongue ripped out repeatedly by demons, symbolizing the retribution for harmful speech and dishonesty.
2. Chamber of Scissors: This layer punishes adulterers and those who have seduced others into illicit relationships. The souls are cut repeatedly with giant scissors, representing the severing of improper desires and actions.
3. Chamber of Iron Trees: In this hell, those guilty of causing discord within families or relationships are forced to climb iron trees with sharp blades. The agony inflicted reflects the pain and disruption they caused in life.
4. Chamber of Mirror of Retribution: Here, souls are confronted with a mirror that reflects all their wrongdoings. The torture involves facing the truth of their actions and enduring the consequences, emphasizing the importance of self-awareness and repentance.
5. Chamber of Steamer: This layer punishes those who abused their power or authority to exploit or oppress others. The souls are steamed alive in boiling water, symbolizing the intense suffering they inflicted on their victims.
6. Chamber of Copper Pillars: In this hell, those who have committed arson or caused destruction through fire are bound to red-hot copper pillars. The punishment mirrors the fiery devastation they wrought in their lives.
7. Chamber of the Mountain of Knives: This layer is reserved for murderers and those who caused physical harm to others. Souls are forced to climb a mountain covered with sharp knives, enduring continuous pain and suffering.
8. Chamber of the Mountain of Ice: Those who were heartless, cruel, or indifferent to the suffering of others are sent to this hell, where they are frozen in a mountain of ice. The punishment reflects the coldness and lack of compassion they displayed in life.
9. Chamber of Oil Cauldrons: This hell is for gluttons and those who engaged in excessive indulgence or greed. The souls are boiled in cauldrons of hot oil, symbolizing the consequences of their insatiable appetites and selfishness.
10. Chamber of the Pit of Fire: In this layer, those who engaged in deception, fraud, or betrayal are thrown into a pit of fire. The burning represents the destruction caused by their deceitful actions.
11. Chamber of the Pit of Blood: This hell punishes those who have engaged in extreme violence or bloodshed. Souls are submerged in a pit of blood, enduring the torment that mirrors the brutality they inflicted on others.
12. Chamber of the Pit of Manure: Reserved for those who engaged in immoral or perverse acts, this layer subjects souls to a pit of manure. The filth and degradation symbolize the impurity of their actions.
13. Chamber of Avici: Avici, the lowest and most severe hell, is reserved for the most heinous criminals and sinners. It is a place of endless suffering with no reprieve, reflecting the irredeemable nature of their transgressions.
14. Chamber of the Crushing Stones: This hell is for those who exploited others for personal gain, such as corrupt officials or deceitful merchants. Souls are crushed repeatedly under heavy stones, symbolizing the weight of their greed and exploitation.
15. Chamber of the Burning Furnace: Those who misled or corrupted others, particularly in spiritual or moral matters, are burned in a furnace. The intense heat represents the destructive impact of their false teachings or guidance.
16. Chamber of the Frozen Hell: This layer punishes those who were ungrateful or showed a lack of respect to their benefactors. Souls are frozen in ice, reflecting the coldness and ingratitude they displayed in life.
17. Chamber of the Knife Saw: Reserved for those who harmed or killed animals or other living beings unnecessarily, this hell subjects souls to being sawed in half. The torture mirrors the pain and suffering they inflicted on innocent creatures.
18. Chamber of the Repaying of Debts: In this final layer, souls who failed to repay debts or obligations in life are subjected to endless torment as they attempt to settle their accounts. The punishment underscores the importance of fulfilling one’s responsibilities and maintaining trustworthiness.

These Eighteen Layers of Hell represent a detailed system of moral retribution, where each punishment is tailored to the specific nature of the sins committed. This intricate framework underscores the Chinese belief in justice and the inevitability of facing the consequences of one’s actions in the afterlife.

Cultural Practices and Beliefs Surrounding the Underworld

Ancestor Worship and Rituals

• Burning Joss Paper and Offerings: Ancestor worship is a cornerstone of Chinese culture, deeply intertwined with beliefs about the underworld. Families burn joss paper, also known as spirit money, along with other paper replicas of goods such as houses, clothes, and even cars, to ensure that their ancestors have the necessities in the afterlife. This practice is based on the belief that these offerings are transformed into real items in the underworld, providing comfort and sustenance to the deceased.
• Festivals and Commemorations: Various festivals and rituals are dedicated to honoring the dead and ensuring their well-being in the underworld. The Qingming Festival (清明节), or Tomb Sweeping Day, involves cleaning and maintaining ancestral graves and making offerings to the deceased. The Ghost Festival (中元节), held on the fifteenth day of the seventh lunar month, is a time when the spirits of the dead are believed to return to the living world. Families offer food, incense, and joss paper to appease these spirits and prevent them from causing harm.

Literary and Artistic Depictions of the Underworld

• Folktales and Literature: Chinese literature and folklore are rich with stories depicting the underworld and its inhabitants. Works such as «Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio» (聊斋志异) by Pu Songling include numerous accounts of encounters with spirits and journeys to the underworld. These stories often serve to convey moral lessons and reflect societal values regarding justice, retribution, and the afterlife.
• Visual Art and Performances: The underworld is a popular theme in Chinese art and performance. Paintings, sculptures, and theatrical performances often depict scenes from the underworld, including the courts of the Ten Kings and the various layers of Hell. These artistic representations serve both as a means of exploring the mysteries of the afterlife and as a tool for educating the public about moral principles and the consequences of their actions.

Modern Interpretations and Continuities

• Contemporary Beliefs and Practices: While modern Chinese society has evolved, traditional beliefs about the underworld and the afterlife continue to influence cultural practices. Many people still engage in ancestor worship, participate in festivals honoring the dead, and make offerings to ensure the well-being of their deceased loved ones. These practices reflect an enduring respect for the past and a desire to maintain a harmonious relationship with the spiritual realm.
• Cultural and Religious Syncretism: The integration of Daoist, Buddhist, and folk beliefs in the conception of the underworld illustrates the dynamic and adaptive nature of Chinese spirituality. This syncretism allows for a diverse and multifaceted understanding of the afterlife, accommodating various interpretations and practices. The underworld remains a central element in Chinese culture, symbolizing the complex interplay between life and death, justice and retribution, and the eternal quest for balance and harmony.

Conclusion

The Chinese underworld, with its rich tapestry of mythological, religious, and cultural elements, offers a profound insight into the Chinese worldview. It reflects deep-seated beliefs about justice, morality, and the afterlife, providing a framework for understanding the consequences of human actions. Through its detailed structure, governance, and vivid depictions in literature and art, the underworld continues to captivate and instruct, reminding us of the enduring importance of balance and harmony in both life and death.